The concept of seventy nations and languages represents a manifestation of divine wisdom and interaction. Rooted in the biblical ethnology of Genesis 10, this framework underscores the universal scope of the Divine Revelation and its relevance to all humanity. The seventy nations represent each of the children of Noah who formed nations. They are not merely an enumeration of ancient tribes but symbolize the diversity of human civilization—each with its unique character, purpose, and spiritual potential.

Seventy Nations in Jewish Tradition

In the aftermath of the flood, humanity was divided into seventy archetypal families. This division, as the Rabbinical sages would assert, reflects God’s intention to create a world where unity and diversity coexist harmoniously. Each nation, under the stewardship of its “guardian angel”, was endowed with specific attributes to contribute to the collective mission of mankind.

The seventy bullocks sacrificed during the Feast of Tabernacles epitomize this responsibility. These offerings, as explained by the sages, atone for the seventy nations, symbolizing Israel’s responsibility to intercede for the world. The sages lament the destruction of the Temple as Rav Yochanan did, mourning the loss of this universal atonement mechanism. Yet, we are reminded that the teachings of the Torah, including the Noahide laws, provide an enduring path for atonement and reconciliation, accessible to all nations.

Biblical and Rabbinic Foundations

Deuteronomy 32:8 encapsulates the mystical alignment between the seventy nations and the seventy descendants of Jacob. “When the Most High apportioned the nations, He established their boundaries according to the number of the children of Israel.” This refers to the seventy descendants of Jacob who entered Egypt (Genesis 46:27), suggesting a parallel between the seventy nations and the seventy members of Israel. The sages interpret this verse as an affirmation of the spiritual connection between humanity’s diversity. The seventy facets of the Torah correspond to the seventy nations, demonstrating the Torah’s capacity to address every cultural and spiritual disposition. Moses’ repetition of the Torah in seventy languages at the close of the wilderness journey underscores its universality, ensuring that no nation could claim ignorance of its teachings.

The division of humanity at Babel also holds profound significance. The sages did not see in this event a punishment, but a divine recalibration—the dispersion of nations was accompanied by the dissemination of the archetypal language. This proto-Semitic tongue, spoken by Noah’s missionaries, retained its sanctity as the language of divine revelation. The seventy archetypal languages that emerged at Babel were but reflections of this primordial unity, enabling each nation to receive the Torah in its own tongue.

The Midrash’s assertion that God’s voice at Sinai divided into seventy languages exemplifies this inclusivity. It affirms that the revelation at Sinai was not exclusively for Israel but for all humanity. The prophet’s vision of multi-covenantism—where distinct nations maintain their unique covenants with God while converging on shared principles—is exemplified in this event. This framework is foundational to his concept of religious federalism, a model of global unity rooted in diversity.

In this light, the seventy members of the Sanhedrin and their requisite knowledge of the seventy languages take on deeper significance. They symbolize the integration of universal wisdom into the legal and ethical framework of the Torah. The Sanhedrin’s ability to adjudicate without interpreters reflects the Torah’s inherent universality, accessible to all nations and cultures.

Finally, the sages would highlight the enduring mission of teaching the universal principles of the Noahide covenant to all nations. This mission is not confined to the Children of Israel but extends to all who recognize God’s revelation at Sinai. By embracing their roles within the framework of multi-covenantism, the nations can achieve spiritual elevation, contributing to the realization of a harmonious world order. The seventy nations are not mere historical relics but living embodiments of humanity’s collective potential, each carrying the divine spark toward its fulfillment in the unity of creation.

The Languages of the World

A Talmudic discussion explores the languages spoken before the Dispersion. Rabbi Eleazar posited that each population had its own language but could understand all others, while Rabbi Johanan asserted that only Hebrew was spoken. Both perspectives can be reconciled by viewing a single archetypal and conceptual language from which the seventy language families emerged.

An interesting appreciation of the qualities of various languages is that given by Rabbi Jonathan of Bet Gubrin. He says "There are four fine languages that ought to be used by the whole world: Greek for poetry; Latin for war; Aramaic for the dirge; and Hebrew for general speech." Each language offering spritual value in and of themselves.

The Torah itself was originally written in seventy languages to ensure that all nations could understand its teachings (Tosefta Sotah 8). This inclusivity underscores the Torah’s universal relevance and the mission to spread its principles among the nations.

Rising to their Greatest Spiritual Potential

Rabbi David Feinstein highlights the symbolic significance of the many parallels to the seventy nations, including the seventy offerings of Tabernacles, the seventy members of the Sanhedrin, and the seventy facets of Torah. These parallels reflect the divine intention that all nations rise to their greatest spiritual potential. Each nation’s unique characteristic—be it beauty, strength, or wisdom—can be elevated and sanctified through adherence to the Torah’s principles.

Indeed, on the verse "He established the boundaries of nations according to the number of the children of Israel", the Sages comment that God established seventy nations because Jacob's family numbered seventy when he descended to Egypt. Why was it necessary for the number of nations to correspond to the number of Jews? Moreover, at the conclusion of the forty years in the desert Moses explained the Torah to the Jews in all seventy languages. Why was necessary for him to use seventy languages when all his listeners were Hebrew-speaking Jews?

Each of the seventy nations represented a unique characteristic, as the Sages say, one excelled in warfare, another in licentiousness, another in beauty and so on. All of these national virtues and strains of character are present in Israel as well for each person has gifts to develop and temptations to overcome. God wants all nations to rise to their greatest spiritual potential.

These variations were present in the individuals of Jacob's family. And the seventy languages used by Moses parallel the seventy facets of Torah; each 'speaks' to one of the seventy characteristics with which God has populated the world. (It may also be suggested that each of the seventy offerings of Tabernacles atoned for the trespasses of each of these seventy national characteristics present within Israel, and consequently the nations of the world benefited from this universal atonement).

Israel, as the spiritual model of the world, was to demonstrate within itself that eminence is within reach of every nation; that every type of person can live a Torah life. Therefore, a significant portion of Jewish life revolves around the number seventy to symbolize that every national trait can become harnessed for holy purposes.

Table of Nations

Genesis 10 presents the “Table of Nations,” enumerating Noah’s seventy descendants and their corresponding nations. Rabbinic sources, including the Targumim and Midrash, provide detailed identifications of these nations based on geographical and ethnological knowledge. While some discrepancies exist in counting the seventy nations, the underlying principle remains that humanity’s diversity originates from a shared divine source.

The majority of sages considered the Genesis 10 to be a simple historical narrative, enumerating, without any pretense to completeness, the descendants of Noah, and indicating the places they had chosen for their respective residences. This is clearly expressed by Rabbi Huna of Sepphoris, who, interpreting Song of Songs 6:8 as an allusion to the nations and their languages, says: "Sixty and eighty are one hundred and forty. Of these, there are seventy nations, each of which possesses a separate language but not a separate script, and seventy other nations, each of which possesses both a separate language and a separate script; as to the nations which possess neither a separate language nor a separate script, they are numberless". In a "Midrash ha-Gadol," it is inferred from Song of Songs 6: 8 that there were only sixty original nations, eliminating from the ethnological table the ten nations descended from Japheth, Gomer, Javan, Ham, Cush, Raamah, Shem, Mizraim, Aram, and Joktan. As to the languages, the "Midrash ha-Gadol" counts seventy-two, as do the Christian authorities, saying: "The total number of the countries that the children of Noah divided among their descendants was 104; of islands, 99; of languages, 72; and of scripts, 16. To the share of Japheth fell 44 countries, 33 islands, 22 languages, and 5 scripts; Ham received 34 countries, 33 islands, 24 languages, and 5 scripts; Shem, 26 countries, 33 islands, 26 languages, and 6 scripts."

Enumerating the Nations

There is some disagreement as to how the count of seventy nations is to be derived from the following verses. A counting of the names -- including Shem, Cham and Yafet, will reveal a total of seventy-four. The common system (following Pesikta Zutresa; Torah Sheleimah 9:110) of ascribing 14 nations to Yafet; 30 to Cham; and 26 to Shem, totaling seventy. Shem, Cham and Yafet themselves are omitted as are the Philistines who, according to Genesis 10:14 are designated as a mixed race. Others include the Philistines but omit Nimrod from whom a separate nation did not descend. Yalkut Shimoni attributes 15 nations to Yafet, 32 to Cham, and 27 to Shem, totaling 74. However, Shem, Arpachshad, Shelach and Ever were too righteous to be counted among the general, leaving the total again at 70.

The souls that appeared from Noach to Israel became the roots of the seventy nations. They did not appear all at once, rather progressively. The enumeration we use follow these following rules: Each time the verse names a child without further describing his progeny, that child was father of one of the seventy nations. These nations are named after their patriarch with the additional suffix -ite. Starting the children of Shem, the terms "sons and daughters" refers to progeny over and above what had been mentioned previously. This unamed progeny also refers to one of the seventy nations. These nations are named after their patriarch with the additional suffix -ian. The last three nations are Ishmael, Esav and Israel, with 70 total.

Identifications

Attempts were made by the Rabbis to identify those nations which were not known to the average reader. The Targumim to Genesis 10 and I Chronicles 1, both the Palestinian and the Babylonian Talmuds, and various midrashim, interpret many of the names of the Biblical nations in the light of their geographical and ethnological knowledge. The sons of Shem were not identified by the Rabbis because they were known, and of the Canaanite nations only the following places are given: Arthasia (city in Phenicia); Gebalene (in Idumea); Acra (in the Lebanon); Aradno (in Phenicia); Emesa (in Syria); Epiphania (in Syria); Callirhoe (to the east of the Dead Sea); Sidon; Tripoli (Phenicia); Cyprus.

See also

• Enumerating the Seventy Nations
• The Geography of the Seventy Nations
• Attributes of the Seventy Nations
• The 70 Gates - An attempt to define all seventy religions based on Rabbi Benemozegh's approach